Biosensors Development for Hydrogen Peroxide Detection

Biosensors Development for Hydrogen Peroxide Detection An approach towards clinical diagnosis. 1. Introduction: The molecular oxygen is the basic source of energy for aerobic systems. Its consumption by the living systems produces the radical such as superoxide anion (O2). This is a highly reactive toxic radical and is implicated in numerous pathologies. The toxicity of the triplet oxygen is prevented by the involvement of enzymes. A real paradox is that hydrogen peroxide and superoxide ion have to be present in the living systems but their concentrations have to be controlled precisely so that they persist only for a short period in cells. Hydrogen peroxide belongs to a class of non-radicals reactive oxygen species [1, 2]. It is an important intermediate species in many biological and environmental processes. Moreover, H2O2 which is known as a cell killer due to its oxidizing power is required as a substrate for many enzymes. It has been shown to be present in the atmospheric and hydrospheric environments [3, 4]. H2O2 is a major reactive oxygen species in living organisms, better known for its cytotoxic effects and it also plays an important role as a second messenger in cellular signal transduction. Oxidative damages resulting from the cellular imbalance of H2O2 and other reactive oxygen species are related to aging and severe human diseases such as cancers and cardiovascular disorders. [5, 6] Furthermore, H2O2 is one of the products of reactions mediated by almost all oxidases. [7] H2O2 is generated in response to various stimuli, including cytokines and growth factors and is also involved in regulating diverse biolo gical processes from immune cell activation and vascular remodeling in mammals [8] to stomatal closure and root growth in plants[9]. In unicellular organisms an important response to the increased levels of H2O2 is the increased production of antioxidants and repair proteins to allow adaptation to these oxidative conditions[10]. Most biological sources of H2O2 involve in the spontaneous or catalytic breakdown of superoxide anions, produced by the partial reduction of oxygen during aerobic respiration and following the exposure of cells to a variety of physical, chemical and biological agents. As for example, activation of NADPH oxidase complexes generate superoxide and hence the H2O2. 2. A brief outlook of the hydrogen peroxide assays Unlike other reactive oxygen species H2O2 (a mild reducing and oxidizing agent) needs an initiator for the activation by the transitional metal or enzymes. This robust chemical characteristic of H2O2 made the assay rather difficult in the quantification compared to its other reactive oxygen species such as superoxide, hydroxyl radical, singlet oxygen, peroxyl radical, and such others. Methods useful for its assay include ultra-violet, infrared, Raman scattering, ESR, electro analytical techniques, metal-H2O2 complexes, enzyme mediated reactions, nanotechnogy, flow injection analysis, and biosensors. 2.1 Analytical methods based on the physical properties Numerous methods have been reported in the literature for the quantification of H2O2 based on its physical properties. These include electrochemical, optical thermal, ultrasonic, chromatographic methods and mass spectra [11]. The analytical methods based on its physical properties are rather restricted due to its relatively poor robustness and sensitivity for biomedical application. Methods assessible for the enzyme assay techniques include Synthetic labeled substrates including fluorogenic and chromogenic substrates Isotopically labeled substrates Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) substrates Substrates with fluorescent labels with indirect detection Electrochemical assays Chemiluminiscence assays Bioluminescent assays Mass spectroscopy Nanotechnology Enzyme immobilization techniques For the development of analytical techniques and methods for the hydrogen peroxide assays, analytical chemists play a crucial role as they are mainly devoted to the development of methodologies or have been too much concerned with the analysis of isolated targeted material. 2.2 Quantification based on the electrochemical biosensor The modern concept of biosensors is a rapidly expanding field of instruments to determine the concentration of substances and other parameters of biological interest since the invention by Clark and lyons in 1962. Electrochemical biosensors are the analytical devices that detect biochemical and physiological changes. Early techniques of biosensors in the analysis of chemical and biological species involved reactions that took place in a solution in addition to catalysts and samples. In recent years, however the biosensor techniques have provided alternative systems that allowed the reactions without reagents to take place at a surface of an electrode. The immobilization techniques include physical adsorption, cross-linking, entrapment, covalent-bond or sometimes combination of all the techniques. International Status As it has been mentioned in the introduction of the proposal, a tremendous burst in research activities in the field of hydrogen peroxide measurement has increased over understanding about its role. Over the last few years, studies have suggested that oxidative stress plays a role in the regulation of hematopoietic cell homeostasis.[12] The generation of H2O2 is increased in response to various stresses, in which previous exposure to one stress can induce tolerance of subsequent exposure to the same or different stresses. [13] Oxidative stress is an important cause of cell damage associated with the initiation of many diseases.[14] It is also investigated that tissue injury due to free radical liberated by H2O2 during oxidative stress is the heart of periodontal diseases. [15] Many research papers describes that high levels of H2O2 is cytotoxic to a wide range of animal, plant and bacterial cells. Hydrogen peroxide has the ability to penetrate the cell membrane and form the hydroxyl radical OH. which is capable of causing high levels of DNA damage. [16] Evidences show that increase in the cellular levels of H2O2 play a major role directly or indirectly in sensitizing cancer cells to H2O2-induced cell death. Indeed, there is a growing literature showing that H2O2 can be used as an inter- and intra-cellular signalling molecule. [17] National status: A tremendous growth is taking place in developing hydrogen peroxide biosensor all over the world and also in India. As per the Indian scenario, different national research institutes and private companies have been working in this field. NPL, CEERI Pilani, IISC, IIT, Bengal Engineering and Science University and many more national institutes are working on this. Many of the private sectors like Biosensor Interventional technologies (India) Pvt. Ltd, Clearly a major obstacles in studying the roles of hydrogen peroxide has been the lack of widely available specific tools and methodologies Objectives The whole idea of the project is to develop a new ultrasensitive reagent, versatile, non-carcinogenic easily available so that there are no earlier reports. The proposal of new reagents for enzyme peroxidase based hydrogen peroxide assay. Principal investigator is interested to have an extensive catch over the kinetic assay by developing new kinetic equations by controlling different parameters such as pH, effect of co-substrate concentration etc., (iv) Methodology: The simple oxidative reaction of the H2O2 in the presence of enzyme can be explored by converting the co-substrates into optically detectable product. This includes a variety of oxidizing reagents based on the oxidative property of metals such as Co(II), Fe(II), Cu(II), and other metal ion catalysts. The assay based on simple oxidation comprises the optical methods such as spectrophotometry, spectroflurimetry, and chemiluminiscence. To overcome the relatively poor sensitivity and selectivity of the optical methods described below, peroxidase or metal porphyrins can be introduced to enhance the sensitivity of specific H2O2 detection. It is based on the specific H2O2 reaction with hydrogen donors on the catalysis of peroxidase or metal porphyrins, instead of oxidizing reagents. These optical methods of analysis are sensitive to the extent of micromolar and nanomolar H2O2 concentrations. As one of the most sensitive optical methods, chemiluminiscence is based on the reaction of luminol with H2O2 in basic solution in the presence of metal ions such as Fe(II), Cu(II), Co(II) and other metal ion catalysts [7]. Further chemiluminiscent methods were developed by the use of different oxidizing agents such as KIO4-K2CO3 [8]. Also attempts were made for the enhancement of chemuminiscent reaction by the use of p-iodopenol [9], gold nanoparticles [10], chitosan [11], resin [12] and DNAzyme [13]. Alternatively, fluorescent quantification has been applied to H2O2 based on the oxidation [14]. The generation of oxidized form can be measured by the fluorescent probes such as p-(hydroxyphenyl)propionic acid [15], ÃŽ ²- Cyclodextrin (CD)–hemin [16], N,N’-dicyanomethyl-o-phenylenediamine- hemin [17], Rhodamine B hydrazide-iron(III)-tetrasulfonatophthalocyanine [18], Fluorescein hydrazide [19], Haemin-L-tyrosine [20], Fluorescin [21], and ninhydrin [22]. Another approach was mainly based on the ROS fluorogenic reaction, which generally involves formation of oxidized forms which are highly fluorescent products [23-26]. There are also many spectrophotometric methods for the assay of H2O2 which are based on the oxidation and formation of the colored product. The spectrophotometry involves the methods based on guaiacol [27], 4-amino-5-(p-aminophenyl)-1-methyl-2-phenyl-pyrazol-3-one (DAP) N-ethyl-N-sulpho- propylaniline sodium salt (ALPS) [28], Phenol-AAP [29], Photofenton reaction-metavanadate [30], Fenton reaction [31], Pyrocatecol-aniline [32], H2O2-molybdate [33], Naphthalene-Agrocybe aegerita peroxidase [34], and phenol red-HRP [35]. The sensitivity of these optical methods can be further enhanced by the involvement of sequential flow injection analysis system. Principal investigator is interested to carry out modest research for the development of newer analytical procedures for the enzyme based substrate assay. Implementation of the project proposal involves of developing new reagents for the assay of peroxidase involving the use of amine, phenol related co-substrate assay for peroxidase. The main proposal of the research work will be dealt with alternative reagents to guaiacol, benzidine which are having it own disadvantages such as solubility in water, carcinogenic, economic viability. References: [1] C.L. Murrant, M.B. Reid, Detection of reactive oxygen and reactive nitrogen species in skeletal muscle, Microscopy Research and Technique, 55 (2001) 236-248. [2] M.P. Fink, Role of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in acute respiratory distress syndrome, Current Opinion in Critical Care, 8 (2002) 6-11. [3] D. Price, P.J. Worsfold, R.F. C. Mantoura, Hydrogen peroxide in the marine environment: cycling and methods of analysis, TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 11 (1992) 379-384. [4] J.M. Anglada, P. Aplincourt, J.M. Bofill, D. Cremer, Atmospheric Formation of OH Radicals and H2O2 from Alkene Ozonolysis under Humid Conditions, ChemPhysChem, 3 (2002) 215-221. [5] M.C.Y. Chang, A. Pralle, E.Y. Isacoff, C.J. Chang, A Selective, Cell-Permeable Optical Probe for Hydrogen Peroxide in Living Cells, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 126 (2004) 15392-15393. [6] E.W. Miller, A.E. Albers, A. Pralle, E.Y. Isacoff, C.J. Chang, Boronate-Based Fluorescent Probes for Imaging Cellular Hydrogen Peroxide, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 127 (2005) 16652-16659. [7] D.A. Abramowicz, C.R. Keese, Enzyme-catalyzed reactions involving diphenyl carbonate, in, Google Patents, 1990. [8] M. Geiszt, T.L. Leto, The Nox Family of NAD(P)H Oxidases: Host Defense and Beyond, Journal of Biological Chemistry, 279 (2004) 51715-51718. [9] C. Laloi, K. Apel, A. Danon, Reactive oxygen signalling: the latest news, Current Opinion in Plant Biology, 7 (2004) 323-328. [10] D.J. Jamieson, Oxidative stress responses of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Yeast, 14 (1998) 1511-1527. [11] D. Harms, H. Luftmann, F.K. Muller, B. Krebs, U. Karst, Selective determination of hydrogen peroxide by adduct formation with a dinuclear iron(iii) complex and flow injection analysis/tandem mass spectrometry, Analyst, 127 (2002) 1410-1412. [12] A. Nogueira-Pedro, T.A.M. Cesario, C. Dias, C.S.T. Origassa, L.P.M. Eca, E. Paredes-Gamero, A. Ferreira, Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) induces leukemic but not normal hematopoietic cell death in a dose-dependent manner, Cancer Cell International, 13 (2013) 123. [13] B. Halliwell, M.V. Clement, L.H. Long, Hydrogen peroxide in the human body, FEBS Letters, 486 (2000) 10-13. [14] E.A. Veal, A.M. Day, B.A. Morgan, Hydrogen Peroxide Sensing and Signaling, Molecular Cell, 26 (2007) 1-14. [15] A. Mendi, B. AslÄÂ ±m, Antioxidant Lactobacilli Could Protect Gingival Fibroblasts Against Hydrogen Peroxide: A Preliminary In Vitro Study, Probiotics Antimicro. Prot., (2014) 1-8. [16] B. Halliwell, J.M.C. Gutteridge, Oxygen free radicals and iron in relation to biology and medicine: Some problems and concepts, Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 246 (1986) 501-514. [17] S. Neill, R. Desikan, J. Hancock, Hydrogen peroxide signalling, Current Opinion in Plant Biology, 5 (2002) 388-395.

Governtment Money

In each country, government plays important role in developing their lands by improving the roads, the local transports, and the school and so on. To do so government has to spend billions of dollars on each project. In my view I think that government should spend as much as money on the basic requirement on the earth rather than spending lot of money on the outer space. First, by increasing the local transport will improve the economics of the country. Second, by reconsidering the old bridge is the safety for the people life. First, by increasing the number of the local transport will increase the economics of the country by adding the jobs to the people. For example, as I remember, everyday to my work I would drive the car five days a week. I used to spend lot of money on the gas, at the same time; my car produces the carbon mono oxide which is damaging the environment. If government spends money on adding the local transports like local buses, subways, local trains and so on. People start using these transports eventually save their money, in addition to that government will increases the jobs requirement like maintain ace guys, the engineer, the electrician guy so on. Drastically these while improve the economics of our country, as workers will start paying the tax. As you can see, adding the local transport will increases the jobs and the people start paying the taxes. Finally, government should focus on the old bridges, which had to be reconstructed. for instance, In Washington, they was a collapse of the bridge on the sikgat river, which caused by the heavy track when hit the bridge the concrete of the bridge was sliced off, which leads to collapse of the bridge, thought they was no life- threatening injuries, but still our government has to reconsider the safety of the people. As they are some many bridges around the nation, which has to be repaired, for that government has to spend ton of dollars. For this reasons I could say that government should spend money wisely thinking about the safety of the people and preventing this kind of tragedy. In sum, we are the people who elected the government. So government should give first preferences to the basic requirement of the people on the earth, by increasing the local transport and by improving the old bridges which is mandatory.

Throughout Literary History The Definition And Application

Throughout literary history the definition and application of interpretation has been debated vigorously. Interpretation is essentially how a reader finds meaning and value in the work. Although some theorist have similar views as to what interpretation means, no to two definitions are alike. Interpretation is fluid and shaped to each theorists views. Two show the different definition interpretation has had throughout history we will follow the views of five different theorists and their works: Matthew Arnold (1867), Sigmund Freud (1900), Wolfgang Iser (1960), Stanley Fish (1976), and Stephen Greenblatt (1960). Our first theorist comes from the Romantic theory and criticism. This era’s focus on the â€Å"individual which led to an unprecedented†¦show more content†¦And â€Å"culture is considered not merely as the endeavour to see and learn this, but as the endeavour, also, to make it prevail, the moral, social, and beneficent character of culture becomes manifest† (Arnold 716). Culture, and literature, causes us to stop and reflection on what’s within us, as it is an â€Å"internal condition†. He uses the example of having the Kingdom of God within you as a Christian, so you would be reflecting on the will of God which Arnold calls the â€Å"study of perfection† (Arnold 717). Interpretation to make sense of the work. Arnold’s emphasis culture and the pursuit of moral goodness and the study of perfection throughout his writing. Arnold’s interpretations is that of learning about the will of God, and a reflection on culture. Arnold s tates outright that â€Å"Criticism is not, ultimately, something one does; it gestures toward who one is† (Leitch, et al. 693). Our next theorists is Sigmund Freud. His works comes from the psychoanalytic theory period. This theory is about how the mind of an individual is made up of both conscious and unconscious parts with the unconscious being the more powerful of the two. Freud explains how to make sense of the unconscious minds desires and dream through his work, The Interpretation of Dreams. He stresses the importance in connecting the meaning between theShow MoreRelatedHistorical Developments in Philosophy Essay1189 Words   |  5 Pages | | | | | | |Principal Issues | |Field |Definition | |Schools Of Thought |Key Contributors | | | | | Read MoreHow Historical Developments And The Various Aims Of Education1413 Words   |  6 Pagesterms of religion but also by gender, ability, social class and special needs. A solution proposed to minimise this division is simple. Shared Education. What is Shared Education? The Advancing Shared Education (ASE 2013) report provides a general definition of, â€Å"Shared education involves two or more schools or other educational institutions from different sectors, working in collaboration, with the aim of delivering educational benefits to learners. 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Women s Age Of Marriage Essay - 1238 Words

Around the world, marriage is a very important aspect in world culture; however, in the America’s marriage seems to dominate young adults lives, especially women, to a different extreme. The gender ratio in national parliament has always been more men than women. There are many variables that one can use to measure this uneven ratio; however, the most important variable that contributes to this outcome is the average age of marriage of the country. If a country s average age of marriage is young, then their women representation in government will be low and vice versa. With the continuous binding of women into marriage, the number of women in parliament will slowly continue to decline. When examining the information further, it can be confirmed that the age of a woman when she is married is not a vital factor in whether she will have a lesser chance of participating in parliament. Although, there is some parallels between a few countries, majority do not correlate with the wom en s age. Marriage is a legally recognized joining between a man and a women. When the both fall in love with each other, they see marriage as a way to solidify that love, and that’s a beautiful part of the America’s culture. So many couples seem to tie the knot before one of the two change their mind. Unfortunately, marriage isn t that simple when explaining it. From a young age children, especially little girls, are asked what would be their ideal wedding, and surprisingly some will answer with noShow MoreRelatedThe Changes Of Marriage During The 1950s966 Words   |  4 PagesThe changes of marriage in the United States Marriage is a relationship is about coming together in which two people have promised themselves being with each other. However, marriage in the United States has changed in the 1950s from what it is today. 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A Definition Of Justice By Aristotle And The Star Spangled...

American society has kept white rich men in the nation superior, while keeping Black people and other minorities such as women in the lower realms of the society. When the Declaration of Independence, Constitution of the United States, and The Star Spangled Banner were written they were not meant to include black people (African descendants). At that time black people were considered to be a percent of a person, actually chattel, property to white slave owners. In addition, women were not considered to have the same rights leaving them in an unequal state to their husbands, fathers, and brothers. The American society has gained their independence by creating justice for themselves while producing inequalities for others; some affected by â€Å"justice† were people with different ideas than government, slaves, women and free African-Americans. Aristotle’s â€Å"A Definition of Justice† describes the differences of the state with an oligarchy and democracy as government. In both systems of government, Aristotle states men have a misconception of justice. â€Å"Justice is thought by them to be, and is, equality, not, however, for all, but only for equals. And inequality is thought to be, and is, justice; neither is this for all, but only for inequals.† (Aristotle) Examples to confirm Aristotle’s definition are the position that blacks, slaves and women held in past oligarchy and democracy states. In Aristotle’s time (300’s B.C.) until the late 1800’s slavery was a customary practice,

Developmental Stages in Children and Adolscents Free Essays

Developmental Stages in Children and Adolescents Erica Bass May 7, 2012 Andrew Fletcher PSY 104 – Child and Adolescent Development Developmental Stages in Children and Adolescents In exploring the differences in children and why and how they develop can be quite interesting. There are many different theories that suggest different explanations as to why children develop when they do, whether it is cognitive, socially, mentally, etc. Three very interesting theories are Kohlberg’s moral development theory, Piaget’s cognitive theory and Freud’s psychosexual theory. We will write a custom essay sample on Developmental Stages in Children and Adolscents or any similar topic only for you Order Now How does each of these theories pertain to the average child, and can these theories work together? First let us explore three very different theories, the first being Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. Moral development is a major topic of interest in both psychology and education. One of the best known theories was developed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg who modified and expanded upon Jean Piaget’s work to form a theory that explained the development of moral reasoning. Kohlberg extended Piaget’s theory, proposing that moral development is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan. Piaget described a two-stage process of moral development, while Kohlberg’s theory of moral development outlined six stages within three different levels, which are outlined below: * Level 1. Preconventional Morality * Stage 1 – Obedience and Punishment – at this stage children see rules as fixed and absolute, they view rules as being important because they avoid punishment * Stage 2 – Individualism and Exchange – at this stage children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs * Level 2. Conventional Morality * Stage 3 – Interpersonal Relationships – at this stage the focus is on living up to social expectations and roles. * Stage 4 – Maintaining Social Order – at this stage the focus is on following rules and respecting authority * Level 3. Postconventional Morality * Stage 5 – Social Contract and Individual Rights – at this stage people begin to account for different values, opinions and beliefs or other people. Stage 6 – Universal Principles – at this stage people are supposed to uphold the universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning (http://psychology. about. com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/kohlberg. htm) Paiget’s Theory. Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development describe the intellectual development of children from infancy to early adulthood. Piaget believed that children are not less intelligent than adults, they simply think differently. He also proposed a number of concepts to explain how children process information. The three concepts to support Piaget’s theory are: Schemas – Are categories of knowledge that help us interpret and understand the world * Assimilation – The process of taking in new information into our previously existing schema’s * Accommodation – Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schema’s in light of new information There are also four different stages to Piaget’s theory, which are: * The Sensormotor Stage – This stage last from birth to two years of age and is centered on the infant trying to make sense of the world * The Preoperational Stage – This stage occurs between ages two to six, and is centered on language development * The Concrete Operational Stage – This stage occurs between the ages seven to eleven, and is centered on thinking logically about concrete events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical co ncepts * The Formal Operational Stage – This stage occurs between the ages twelve and last through adulthood, during this time people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts (http://psychology. about. com/b/2008/04/21/key-concepts-in-cognitive-development. htm) Now let’s explore a second theory, Freud’s theory. According to Sigmund Freud, personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence behavior later in life. Freud’s theory of psychosexual development is one of the best known, but also one of the most controversial. Freud believed that personality develops through a series of childhood stages during which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind behavior. If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the result is a healthy personality. If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain â€Å"stuck† in this stage. Freud’s theory consists of five different stages, which are: * The Oral Stage – This stage occurs from birth to one year, the infant’s primary source of interaction is through oral simulation through tasting and sucking. Because an infant it is entirely dependent upon caregivers, the infant develops a sense of trust and comfort through oral simulation * The Anal Stage – This stage occurs from one to three years of age, which is basically training the child to control his/her, bodily needs, toilet training to be specific. The Phallic Stage – This stage occurs from three to six years of age, at this stage children begin to discover the difference between males and females. * The Latent Period – This stage occurs from six to puberty, at this stage the libido interest is suppressed, and the development of the ego and superego contribute to the calm of this stage. This is the time of exploration but is directed more towards intellectual and social interaction. * The Genital Stage – This stage occurs between puberty and death, this is when an adolescent develops a strong interest in the opposite sex (http://psychology. about. com/od/theoriesofpersonality/ss/psychosexualdev. tm) All of these theories have their way in the world, and when speaking to parents about their children I am sure that they can apply each of these in some shape or form. For example the Kohlberg theory, moral development: Suppose there is a child who has no rules or boundaries. There is one in particular that comes to mind. This child is born, the father is absent, the mother doing it alone, she has issues with alcohol and drugs, so therefore the child gets very little personal attention, or guidance, she is free to do as she wishes. Because of this from birth to adolescence beginning wit h conventional morality, she does not have rules so, does the Kohlberg theory apply? I would venture to say no, because the ideal of these rules and boundaries being put it to place are not there, and do not happen. This How to cite Developmental Stages in Children and Adolscents, Essay examples

Working with Babies from Birth to 12 Months free essay sample

Working with babies from birth to 12 months E1-Summarise the factors which may influence the health and development of babies in the first year of their lives    Environmental factors such as not having enough space in the garden for the baby to play and explore will influence their development as they may not be able to expand their gross and fine motor skills. â€Å"Generally, people with a high level of earnings enjoy a better lifestyle, with better housing, food, clothes and own transport. Parents may not have enough money to buy toys and the essential equipment for the baby, which means they will have different experiences. Another factor could be the parents own experiences of being parented were compromised and have difficulties parenting their children. Having good role models as parents impacts on the parents were going to become. Another reason could be the financial climate rising, so parents have to return to work sooner after birth. This has a knock on effect when bonding with the baby e. g. not being able to breastfeeding or spending quality time together. Thus putting strain on the parent/child relationship. Finding appropriate supervision, long working hours, tired, stressed all these factors have effect. Another factor is genetics which may influence the health and development of the baby. Some illnesses are inherited through genes. For example Down’s syndrome, this is resulted from a chromosomal abnormality. The baby can have problems such as heart defects and chest infections. http://www. marchofdimes. com/baby/birthdefects_chromosomal. html accessed on the 27th January 2012 Illnesses such as meningitis can cause epilepsy and hearing problems, whilst asthma is long term and the baby may need to have asthma pumps. The baby may have a poor appetite, constipation and feel ill. Their weight and height may be below average, if they have not been developing correctly due to illness. Antenatal factors influence development of the baby, during pregnancy. The mother may have taken illegal drugs or alcohol. This can cause the baby to develop an addiction, and may have to be weaned off. Infections can pass through the umbilical cord such as rubella, which can leave the baby deaf or blind when born. Another is if the parent smokes during pregnancy this can have an effect on the foetus reducing blood flow which reduces oxygen significantly that the foetus requires developing correctly. Babies that are born to smokers are more likely to be either premature or have low weight issues or in some cases both. http://www. helpwithsmoking. com/smoking-and-pregnancy/effects-on-foetus-pregnancy. php accessed 27th January 2012 During delivery, there may be complications which can affect the baby’s health such as lack of oxygen. This can be caused by the umbilical cord becoming entangled. As a result, the baby can be left brain damaged. Premature births can effect a baby’s growth and development. The child may develop breathing difficulties also prone to infection as the child hasn’t developed the antibodies they require to fight infections It’s crucial for a baby to be around others and have different experiences, in their first years of life, children develop the social and emotional capacities that prepare them to be self-confident, trusting, empathic, intellectually inquisitive, communication skills and social skills. Not having opportunities the likely outcome they’ll form fragile relationships, and affect the way children react, relate to others and respond to the world around them. E2-Describe how indoor and outdoor environments can be made safe, reassuring and stimulating. The indoor environment can be made safe by never leaving children unattended, because of accidents. There should always be correct staff to baby ratio, which is 1 Adult to 3 Children. Whilst the baby sleeps, practitioners should be aware of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome and keep the baby at the end of the cot. Risk assessments should also be made inside and outside. It is important that the environment children are playing in is regularly checked, before and during activities. † Tassoni. P (2007) (Page 193) Outside, gates should be locked and the practitioner should follow policies and procedures that are in place. Making sure they understand them fully ensuring the child’s safety and wellbeing. Activities should be the appropriate age ranged and correct stage of development for each child. * Make toys accessible to babies so there free to choose what they want to play with and changing toy choices regularly keeps the babies interested and free to explore without danger. Provide safe access to windows so babies can look out onto the world, unbreakable mirrors to look into, and brightly coloured pictures at eye level. * Have a variety of floor surfaces for the babies to practicing crawling and walking (e. g. , mats, carpets, smooth floor surfaces) * Space where baby can take a time out from group activities. Indoor can be reassuring by following Key worker system with this, baby and parents will have one practitioner whom they will form a bond. The practitioner makes sure babies have individual routines, by working in partnership with parents, as they find the child’s individual needs. They adapt their voice and body language so the baby feels comfortable. Outside, they can be exposed to new experiences slowly. The practitioner can also support the baby if upset by strangers, as they are aware of them from 6 months. The environments can be made stimulating by activities which build the babies sensory development, fine and gross motor skills. E. g. treasure basket which has different natural objects in, this will encourage the baby to use their different senses. The displays can be low down so the babies can interact with them by touch. Whilst outdoors, the practitioner can take the babies to parks or mini zoo’s and let them explore nature. C1 –Discuss the importance of an environment that is safe, reassuring and stimulating   It is important for the environment to be safe as it is a government and legal requirement. This is because the Childcare Act 2006 affects the â€Å"adult to child ratio in rooms, the qualification levels of staff. † Tassoni. P (2007 page 117) These are embedded in the Early Years Foundation Stage Curriculum. (2008) Here are a few of the legislations and regulations Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 The nursery will cater to produce fresh, healthy meals each day and taking any dietary needs or cultural needs into account and provide children with different foods but again taking all dietary needs, cultural backgrounds into account at all times . The nursery should offer children cow’s milk or water at snack times and have access to water throughout the day. Practitioners should understand and make meal times an enjoyable social occasions and this then providing an opportunity for children to develop their social skills and independence by feeding themselves. All parents are informed of what the child/children does eat within the setting throughout the day, every day through sharing sheets and the sharing of information via the practitioner. Another way is by nursery practitioners identify and manage risks to children and adults through carrying out risks assessments. The risk is a likelihood of a hazard occurring and the hazard is anything that could cause harm to others. All activities need to be considered, and significant risks are identified, measures are put in place to control or eliminate risks and all hazards and measures are recorded. Other risks that are identified must be controlled appropriately. For example a child standing on a chair is a risk and must be controlled; however this would not necessarily be recorded. All risks should be dealt with promptly by either the manager or the practitioner in charge of that room. In my setting each room is checked at the beginning and end of the day for hazards, in accordance with each rooms risk assessment The garden area is checked for hazards before children go out to play. This is carried out in accordance with the nurseries outdoor play policy. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) This treaty sets out the rights and freedoms of all children in a set of 54 articles. Included in those rights are those which ensure that children are safe. Article 19 states children’s rights to be ‘protected from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation including sexual abuse by those looking after them’. Children Act 1989 This Act identifies the responsibilities of parents and professionals who work to ensure the safety of the child.. Section 47 states that the Local Authority has ‘a duty to investigate when there is a reasonable cause to suspect that a child is suffering or likely to suffer, significant harm’. Section 17 states that services must be put into place to ‘safeguard and promote the welfare of children within the area who are in need’. http://www. cumbrialscb. com/pagesall. aspx? id=425 accessed on 27th January 2012 The Education Act 2002 This sets out the responsibilities of Local Education Authorities (LEAs), governing bodies, head teachers and all those working in schools to ensure that children are safe and free from harm. Children Act 2004 This provides the legal framework for Every Child Matters. It includes the requirement for: The Children’s Act 2004 was designed with guiding principles in mind for the care and support of children. These are: * To allow children to be healthy * Allowing children to remain safe in their environments * Helping children to enjoy life The setting should apply simple rules in a positive way that children understand and respond too. Children should engage in many conversations about their feelings, behaviour and that they are familiar with the daily routines, whilst respecting their privacy and dignity at all times. In some cases the safety and welfare of children may depend upon multi-agencies working together as a team. Childcare Act 2006 – The aims of the Childcare Act 2006 A good start in life is essential if children are to fulfil their potential and high quality early childhood services will result in better outcomes for young children, their families and society. There are three main points of the Childcare Act  2006 and they are as follows: * Reduce child poverty: To support parents to work, and focus on the provision of good quality childcare for working parents. * Reduce inequalities between young children: Focus on supporting children most at risk of poor outcomes because of deprivation and disadvantage and promote social mobility. * Improve wellbeing for young children: Focus on the 5 Every Child Matters outcomes: Safety, Health, Economic Wellbeing, Enjoy and Achieve, Making a Positive Contribution. http://www. derby. gov. k/ChilldrenSchoolsFamilies/Services/Childcare/Childcareact2006. htm viewed on 27th January 2012 The environment must also be safe as this prevents accidents. The parents will feel reassured, if their baby is in a safe environment. This means they will want to continue sending their baby to the setting. It also helps the baby’s development; they will have opportunities to learn. If not they may not develop skil ls such as fine and gross motor skills. But it is important to provide children with certain element of risks in order to help them learn how to keep safe, so provide a different range of activities. Boundaries, rules and limits are vital to help children feel safe and confident as they learn to understand what is acceptable and what isn’t. Children thrive best when their physical and emotional needs are met and giving them responsibility by allowing them to make their own decisions. A reassuring environment will make the baby feel secure and settled. As a result, the baby will want to attend the setting. Their also be building up their self-esteem which will benefit them later in life. The baby’s social and emotional health will increased, which reassures their parents. They will also form an excellent attachment with their key person, which will be an advantage as they will plan activities around them. As a result their individual needs will have been met. A stimulating environment is important as the baby will develop a variety of skills. They will increase their sensory development by having activities such as treasury baskets and water play. They’ll feel motivated and want to explore different activities. A stimulating environment can be challenging, this will encourage the baby’s progression and learning and promote overall development. Nursery practitioners follow settings policies and procedures to ensure the nursery’s a safe environment. Staff should have a copy of all the policies and procedures of the setting and familiarise themselves with all the policies and procedures ready to put them into practice. Hold regular staff meetings to discuss the current policies and procedures and to delegate responsibilities according to individual needs are also continuously updated on any change in legislation or policies and procedures through team meetings to get their ideas, knowledge and expertise. Some of the ways that we are aware of procedures are: By maintaining correct ratio’s for the age group * Make sure that staff has access to regular Health and Safety training * Do regular risk assessments on all equipment e. g. toys (inside and out), electrical sockets etc and any trailing wires * Make sure that all accidents and incidents are recorded correctly E3-Describe the expected stage of development of babies at 7 months and how they can be expected to develop in the next 2 months of life. When the baby is seven months old the baby will be using their senses so a familiar feel and smell of a favourite blanket may be reassuring for the baby where as when the baby is 9 months they could be interested in different textures this is where a treasure basket could be introduced as they are all natural and harmless here is a example: Heuristic play was a term coined by a child psychologist Elinor Goldschmeid in the early 1980s. Heuristic play describes the activity of babies and children as they play with and explore the properties of objects. These objects are things from the real world. http://www. littleacornstomightyoaks. co. uk/Articles/Treasure_basket accessed on 27th January 2012 At 7 months there able to sit without support for little time which will free their hands for exploring and reaching for toys as well as trying to get up on their hands and knees, whereas when there nine months, they might be pulling themselves up to a standing position and in some cases cruising along the furniture. This is because their balance and gross motor skills have developed. At seven months the baby may uses palmer grip, whereas at nine months the baby uses the pincer grip. Also at 9 months their fine motor skills have progressed. Fine motor skills are those actions like picking things up between the thumb and finger. â€Å"can deliberately release objects by dropping them. † Tassoni. P (2007, page 41). And where at 7 months the child as an understanding that if you let something go it will fall. At 7 months a child will respond to their name and look up when a adult says â€Å"no† but they will show enthusiasm and excitement when a adult plays. At seven months, the baby watches objects in their visual field. However this progresses at nine months, as may be able to follow falling objects, which is object permanence. This is due to their intellectual development extending. Their language also progresses, as at seven months there babbling tunefully. At nine months it’s more complex as there repeating and imitating others. The baby also enjoys care routines at seven months, at nine months they may be wary of strangers and â€Å"shows distress when her mother leaves. Bruce. T, Meggit C (1999 page 91) as the child distinguishes between familiar faces and new ones. This is improvement of their emotional development. At seven months the baby forms a positive attachment with the adult, but at nine months their social development increases as they offer toys to others. At 7 months a baby’s favourite games is peek-a-boo as they have mastered the actions after playing this game several months e. g. covering themselves, then uncovering themselves and then acting hysterically surprised. But at 9 months they love to play hide and seek and when you pop out they will giggle. Also at 9 months they realise that they are the ones in the mirror. By this age they are ready to start feeding themselves. Each baby is unique and meets milestones at their own pace. These are simply guidelines what your baby has the potential to do, if not right now, then soon some babies may develop rapidly in an area such as physical and less quickly in language. E4 -Explain how 2 different play activities/experiences can support the overall development of the baby described in E3. One activity which can support a seven month baby is using musical instruments. These may include instruments such as a drum, rattle, xylophone and a music box. The baby’s sensory skills will develop whilst using the instruments, as they are using their sight to see the instruments, hearing to listen to the sounds they produce and touch by exploring the different materials on the instrument. Their fine motor skills will also develop as they pick up the instruments and discover them by shaking, pressing or pounding. The instruments also help the baby’s hand to eye co-ordination and concentration. The musical instruments will also help the baby’s language development as they may babble whilst playing. The activity also develops the baby’s emotional development, as they may be feeling agitated so the music will calm and comfort the child. Also their social development will increase as they are bonding with an adult. â€Å"Music is an easy way for parents to relate to their children. When an infant hears you sing to them, you are connecting with them, and they are connecting to you. www. childcareaware. org accessed on 27th January 2012 Another activity is using building blocks to support the baby’s development. This is due to the seven month baby using its fine motor skills to pincer grip the blocks when picking them up, and their gross motor skills by picking them up with their hands and arms. They will also develop good sitting skills, as they will be able to balance for longer periods of time when they are playing. As a result, the baby will develop their hand to eye co-ordination from this activity. They will also start recognising different colours, shapes and patterns. Their language and social development will improve as they may babble and bond with the adult. E5- Describe the role of the practitioner in meeting the particular needs of babies in a group care setting. Children learn in many different ways. Practitioners have a crucial role in this learning and should draw on a range of teaching and child development and care strategies. http://www. nurseryworld. co. uk/news/722565/Partners-Learningrole-practitioner/?